What Is Cytology ?

Cytology, more commonly known as cell biology, studies cell structure, cell composition, and the interaction of cells with other cells and the larger environment in which they exist. The term "cytology" can also refer to cytopathology, which analyzes cell structure to diagnose disease. Microscopic and molecular studies of cells can focus on either multi-celled or single-celled organisms.


That fact that we as humans are made up of millions of tiny cells, and that other lifeforms around us are similarly constituted, now barely needs explanation. The concept of the cell is relatively new, however. The scientific community did not accept the idea of the existence of cells until the late 18th century. Cytology became, in the 19th century, a way to describe and identify cells, and also to diagnose certain medical diseases.


Recognizing the similarities and differences of cells is of the utmost importance in cytology. Microscopic examination can help identify different types of cells. Looking at the molecules which form a cell, sometimes called molecular biology, helps in further description and identification. All fields of biology depend on the understanding of cellular structure. The field of genetics exists because we understand cell structure and components.


Another important aspect in the discipline of cytology is examining cell interaction. By studying how cells relate to other cells or to the environment, cytologists can predict problems or examine environmental dangers to cells, such as toxic or cancer-causing substances. In humans and other multi-cellular structures, cytology can examine the presence of too many of one kind of cell, or the lack of enough of a certain kind of cell. In a simple test like a complete blood count, a laboratory can look at white blood cells and identify the presence of an infection, or it may examine a low level of certain types of red blood cells and diagnose anemia.


Certain autoimmune disorders can be diagnosed by abnormal cell reactions. Hashimoto's thyroiditis, for example, is an autoimmune condition caused by abnormal cell reaction. Instead of white blood cells recognizing the presence of normal thyroid cells, these antibodies attack them, causing low thyroid. If untreated, this condition can result in retardation, extreme fatigue, obesity, and ultimately death. Through cytology, the abnormal reactions of these antibodies can be recognized, and treatment can be undertaken long before this condition creates irreversible problems.


Cytopathology has similar aims, but tends to look for cells that should not be present in an organism. Urinalysis and blood tests, for example, can scan for the presence of parasites or bacteria which can cause illness and death. Hence, in cytology, understanding single-celled organisms like many forms of bacteria is as important as understanding multi-cellular structures.

What Is Anatomy Phatology ?

Introduction

Anatomy (from the Greek word anatome,"dissection"), is a branch of natural science dealing with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. For centuries anatomical knowledge consisted largely of observations of dissected plants and animals. The proper understanding of structure, however, implies a knowledge of function in the living organism. Anatomy is therefore almost inseparable from physiology, which is sometimes called functional anatomy. As one of the basic life sciences, anatomy is closely related to medicine and to other branches of biology.

It is convenient to subdivide the study of anatomy in several different ways. One classification is based on the type of organisms studied, the major subdivisions being plant anatomy and animal anatomy. Animal anatomy is further subdivided into human anatomy (which we cover in detail) and comparative anatomy, which seeks out similarities and differences among animal types. Anatomy can also be subdivided into biological processes—for example, developmental anatomy, the study of embryos, and pathological anatomy, the study of diseased organs. Other subdivisions, such as surgical anatomy and anatomical art, are based on the relationship of anatomy to other branches of activity under the general heading of applied anatomy. Still another way to subdivide anatomy is by the techniques employed—for example, microanatomy, which concerns itself with observations made with the help of the microscope (see the section below on the history of anatomy).

Human Anatomy

• Musculoskeletal System
• Nervous System
• Circulatory System
• Immune System
• Respiratory System
• Digestive and Excretory Systems
• The Endocrine System
• The Reproductive System
• Skin

What Is Hematology ?

Clinical laboratory work, and pediatrics that is concerned with the study of blood, the blood-forming organs, and blood diseases. Hematology includes the study of etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, and prevention of blood diseases. The laboratology work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a medical technologist. Hematologists physicians also very frequently do further study in oncology - the medical treatment of cancer.


''Blood diseases'' affect the production of blood and its components, such as blood cells, hemoglobin, blood proteins, the mechanism of coagulation, etc.


Physicians specialized in hematology are known as hematologists. Their routine work mainly includes the care and treatment of patients with hematological diseases, although some may also work at the hematology laboratory viewing blood films and bone marrow slides under the microscope, interpreting various hematological test results. 


In some institutions, hematologists also manage the hematology laboratory. Physicians who work in hematology laboratories, and most commonly manage them, are pathologists specialized in the diagnosis of hematological diseases, referred to as hematopathologists. Hematologists and hematopathologists generally work in conjunction to formulate a diagnosis and deliver the most appropriate therapy if needed. Hematology is a distinct subspecialty of internal medicine, separate from but overlapping with the subspecialty of medical oncology. Hematologists may specialize further or have special interests, for example in:

• Treating bleeding disorders such as hemophilia and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
• Treating hematological malignacies such as lymphoma and leukemia
• Treating hemoglobinopathies
• In the science of blood transfusion and the work of a blood bank
• In bone marrow and stem cell transplantation
• (Hematology comes from the Greek words ἁίμα (''haima'') meaning "blood" and λόγος (''logos''),

What Is Microbiology ?

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms. These "bugs" include: bacteria (that's the Latin plural for bacterium); viruses (that's the non-Latin plural for virus - virii sounds weird, so I don't say it); and, fungi (that's the Latin plural for fungus - which by now you have guessed, or already knew, and may not be all that interested to know, anyway). Microbiology is actually made up of several sub-disciplines.

Microbiology, one of the fastest growing areas of science, is the study of organisms so small that they must be viewed with a microscope. These organisms are primarily bacteria, yeasts, molds, and viruses. Many of the most important scientific discoveries of recent years have been made by microbiologists: since 1910, one-third of the Nobel Prizes in medicine and physiology have been awarded to microbiologists. They are concerned with the welfare of humankind, concentrating not only on aspects of host-microbial interactions influencing disease and immunity, but also on ecological concerns impacting food production and the environment. There is a great demand for microbiologists. Graduates with a concentration in Microbiology find positions in the areas of medical, agricultural, food, industrial, or pharmaceutical microbiology, or microbial genetics or physiology.

 They may become teachers, science writers, technical librarians, or managers of scientific companies. Some of these professions require advanced degrees. The concentration in Microbiology is designed to furnish necessary experience in academic and practical skills to prepare graduates for immediate entry into the job market or for continuing graduate education in pure or applied biological sciences.

Microbiology is the branch of science dealing with microorganisms. It is one of the most relevant, dynamic and exciting disciplines in the biological sciences.

Microorganisms benefit society by cycling inorganic and organic matter into molecules needed for life and detoxifying discarded wastes. Historically, they have served as microscopic factories for the production of cheeses, alcohol and antibiotics. Microorganisms have also been engineered to produce a wide variety of products for our benefit through the emergence of biotechnology.

Microorganisms have, however, also inflicted great distress to human, animal and plant populations through disease, spoilage of crops, foods and the fouling and degradation of man-made structures. More recently, microorganisms have been used as terrorist weapons.

Microbiology has become an umbrella term that encompasses many sub disciplines or fields of study. These include:

- Bacteriology: the study of bacteria

- Mycology: fungi

- Protozoology: protozoa

- Phycology: algae

- Parasitology: parasites

- Virology: viruses